So, the main ideas of the Enlightenment were:
Cult of reason and science;
Uniting mind and nature;
Belief in the transformative power of ideas and education;
Recognition of the influence of the social and natural environment on the formation of personality;
Objection to innate ideas, recognition of the advantage of experience;
Rethinking the issues of the universe and social order;
Proclamation of the "kingdom of reason";
The desire to harmonize human life with natural laws;
Affirmation of the value of an individual regardless of his social status;
Proclamation of the equality of all people (everyone has the same rights to happiness and free life);
Belief in the possibility of raising a harmonious human personality living according to the laws of reason and nature;
Affirmation of the great educational role of art in society;
The desire for a general restructuring of the world (“citizens of the world”).
“Dare to think for yourself,” wrote one of the outstanding philosophers of the Enlightenment, F. Voltaire. This idea laid the foundation for the cult of reason and science of this period. The rapid development of the natural sciences - chemistry, physics, astronomy has led to the need for not only new methodological approaches, but also a new philosophical approach to the rapidly growing amount of knowledge. The main task was to rationalize the process of cognition. At the same time, thinkers tried to determine what lies at the basis of knowledge: sensory sensations or intellect. Most philosophers, including R. Descartes (1596-1650) and B. Spinoza (1632-1677), recognized the primacy of the intellect and reason in the process of cognition, and this is how rationalism and the analytical approach in science were formed. The motto of this rationalism can be called the saying of R. Descartes “I think, therefore I exist!” The goal of human life was proclaimed to be the knowledge and acquisition of absolute truth. Moreover, science in such conditions, according to representatives of the Enlightenment, should have been completely separated from religion. In the moderate period, deism prevailed - the belief in the existence of God, who, having created the Universe, no longer interferes in its life, and in the skeptical and revolutionary periods - atheism. The positive side of this process was the liberation of the worldview of many people from superstitions and prejudices, and the negative side was the undermining of the spiritual foundations of society, which ultimately gave rise to nihilism and new social problems.
From the idea of free reason, Enlightenment philosophers came to the category of “pure” reason - a new method of thinking that would be universally suitable for all sciences and, built on the principles of reason, logic and experience, would help humanity to comprehend and subjugate nature, that is, to achieve absolute progress . The ultimate goal of this progress was declared to be the complete deliverance of humanity from troubles and suffering. But here, too, disagreements arose: supporters of empiricism (T. Hobbes (1588-1679), J. Locke (1632-1704), F. Bacon (1561-1626), D. Hume (1711-1776), D. Berkeley (1685 -1753)) considered sensory experience to be a more important component of “pure” reason, and supporters of rationalism (G. Leibniz (1646-1716), B. Spinoza, R. Descartes) considered intellect alone. But rationalism was still more popular, because objected to the presence of innate ideas. Later, they were supplemented by irrationalism (cognition through a priori methods - intuition, instinct), as well as sensationalism (cognition through sensations, feelings) and the transcendental idealism of I. Kant (1724-1804), who tried to combine both reason and experience in the theory of knowledge. In many ways, he succeeded, and thus German classical philosophy emerged, which became a bridge between the philosophy of the Enlightenment and the dialectics of the 19th century.
At the same time, solving the problem of knowledge, these philosophers, and later F. Voltaire, D. Diderot, J.J. Rousseau and others combined reason and nature, that is, they considered it not a product of the soul, but a product of matter - the activity of the human brain. The deep connection of man with nature in general was emphasized, but at the same time, the philosophy of the Enlightenment treated nature either as a chaos that should be studied and subjugated, or vice versa, as an almost rational, self-sufficient system to which a person must adapt in order to achieve harmony. This expressed one of the main contradictory aspects of “enlightenment” ideas.
Thinkers placed great hopes in resolving these contradictions in future generations, and therefore attached special importance to ideas and their transmission through education. Education and upbringing in general occupied a very important place in the research of the Enlightenment. Firstly, because thanks to them the transmission of those same ideas became possible, and secondly, because the thinkers of this era believed that each person needed to be “enlightened” separately, each individual. If the knowledge and moral development of each person progresses, then universal progress will become possible, human consciousness will be ready to accept new, fairer orders: social and legal protection of different segments of the population, religious tolerance and tolerance towards representatives of other nations, etc. The Enlightenment fought against prejudice in all its forms, as far as was possible for that time.
The issues of education were studied especially deeply by the Englishman J. Locke and the Frenchman C. Helvetius (1715-1771), who managed to deeply study the psychology of pedagogy, in particular the factors influencing the formation of personality. Among these factors, he identified social and natural prerequisites. While the latter are difficult to influence, the former require careful adjustment, that is, society itself must become better, setting an example for young people. These pedagogical theorists argued that a comprehensive intellectual, moral, physical and labor education of the younger generation is necessary. They rejected scholastic methods and proposed methods of visual education, when the student himself gains knowledge through personal experience. Great importance was attached to art as a way of education: educational classicism, educational realism and sentimentalism developed, which we will write about in more detail below. Among scientific disciplines, they noted mathematics, physics, natural subjects, and, to a lesser extent, humanities as more important. Also during the Enlightenment, joint education of boys and girls was proposed. Moreover, if J. Locke proposed abandoning religious education, especially for the poorest segments of the population, then D. Diderot completely rejected it. Much attention was also paid to the personality of the teacher, who himself was obliged to be an example of an enlightened and progressive citizen. Not all of these pedagogical theories were implemented, but they greatly changed the quality of European education.
Emphasizing the importance of social factors, the ideologists of the Enlightenment called for a radical restructuring of society, for the construction of a “kingdom of reason”, where people are equal in their natural rights, where each individual represents the highest value, regardless of gender, social and nationality. The new citizen is a “citizen of the world” - a bearer of “pure” reason, who has learned the laws of the universe and social order in a purely scientific way, and, therefore, has found freedom, harmony and happiness, both in social and personal life. Such a person is alien to egoism and prejudices (social, political, religious), he sees the good in every person, and can cooperate with everyone for the benefit of all. Later, this idea will lay the foundation for cosmopolitanism, a worldview that preaches global citizenship, when common interests are higher than private ones, incl. national. Thus, C. Montesquieu (1689-1755) and F. Voltaire developed projects for the unification of Europe, in which one can see the prototype of the modern European Union, which once again testifies to the power of influence of the Enlightenment on all subsequent historical periods. And I. Kant’s “eternal peace” with his “congress” became the prototype of modern organizations, for example the UN. At the same time, the “enlighteners” were not opponents of patriotism, but believed that it should not be fanatical, otherwise it would inevitably lead to war.
Be that as it may, all these views together gave the world rationalism in its modern world with constant dynamism, with the desire for new knowledge and achievements, for more efficiency and productivity of social life, for the development of the human personality and the improvement of social relations. At the same time, both purely pragmatic aspects stood out: the development of science and technology for the development of the economy, and idealistic ones - improving human life, achieving a state of happiness and harmony, eliminating injustice and suffering. In general, it was the Age of Enlightenment with its new ideals and values that contributed to the development of what is commonly called a market economy, although many market laws were interpreted by philosophers and economists of that time rather narrowly, only from the point of view of “mechanistic” views on supply and demand. However, all these processes were closely interconnected: industry needed a scientific and technical base, while science needed “financial” injections from business. The emergence of capital and free-thinking gave birth to new political theories and methods of their implementation, this is how the first revolutions were carried out and the first national states appeared, this is how political liberalism was born.
Along with the development of political life, economics, philosophy and science, the Enlightenment also influenced the development of artistic culture. At the same time, three main artistic movements were formed - educational classicism, educational realism and sentimentalism. The art of Rococo, closely related to Baroque, stood relatively apart.
Enlightenment classicism was different:
Rationalism;
The superiority of the general over the personal;
Harmonious construction of works;
Didacticism;
Influence of ancient heritage;
An opinion about the need to serve the whole of society, the cause of freedom and justice;
The idea of changing the existing order and establishing a more reasonable and humane one in its place;
Focusing on the conflicts that arise as a result of the clash of heroes with an imperfect society;
The problems of the works (relevant, socially significant);
The leading literary genres are tragedies, epics, odes;
Orientation towards the interests of representatives of the third estate (the entire population, except the nobility and clergy).
Representatives of educational classicism were: in “Voltairean classicism” (F. Voltaire, English poet A. Pope (1688-1744)), in “Weimar classicism” (German writers I.V. Goethe (1749-1832) and F. Schiller ( 1759-1805)), in neoclassicism (French poet A. Chenier (1762-1794), Italian poet D. Parini (1729-1799), German writer J. Paul (1763-1825)).
Enlightenment realism was characterized by:
The principle of inheritance of nature;
Truthfulness of art: concreteness, variety of facts taken from real life;
Choosing the social life of contemporaries as the main object of the image;
Studying the living conditions of people in order to determine ways to improve their existence;
The desire to generalize and analyze one’s observations, to find what is typical in the individual;
Interest in the private lives of people, their everyday life, events in their personal lives;
The predominance of novels, “philistine dramas”, “tearful comedies”;
Establishment of an active, active hero in literature;
Introduction of heroes - representatives of the third estate;
Belief in the spiritual nature of man, his creative potential, the ability to overcome difficulties and transform himself and the world;
Attention to the problem of educating a person, the formation of his character;
Idealization of heroes and didacticism of works.
Among the representatives of educational realism, the most notable personalities are D. Diderot, English writers J. Swift (1667-1745), G. Fielding (1707-1754) and R.B. Sheridan (1751-1816).
Sentimentalism came from French. the words "sentiment" - feeling and suggested:
Attention to the inner world of a person;
Exaltation of feelings, emphasizing the emotional principle;
Depiction of the life of the human heart as the main artistic principle;
Democratism of art: proclamation of the value of the human person regardless of his social status;
The presence of a philosophical basis for sentimentalism - Rousseauism (cult of feelings, human individuality and nature);
Glorifying nature - as a wise teacher of man, a mentor in matters of the heart, the embodiment of harmony and an example for inheritance;
Description of the life of ordinary people, hardworking and virtuous;
Simplicity, clarity, accessibility of style, naturalness in the depiction of life phenomena;
The predominance of stories, novels, and melodramas in literature.
Representatives of sentimentalism were: English writers L. Stern (1713-1768) and S. Richardson (1689-1761), J.J. Rousseau, Russian historian and writer M. Karamzin (1766-1826).
Rococo as a new direction in culture was characterized by:
Hedonic motives of creativity (enjoyment of life);
Narrow, chamber, intimate nature of creativity;
Focus on the tastes of the aristocracy;
Special sophistication, refinement of forms;
The brilliance and richness of artistic expression;
Aestheticism, festivity, theatricality, attention to the smallest details;
A work of art that is intended to delight and amaze the eyes, ears and imagination;
The main motives of creativity are beauty, love;
The predominance of anacreontic motifs (love, erotic plots);
Depiction of images, phenomena and events devoid of political content;
Asymmetry, inconstancy of forms and lines, spontaneity, irrationalism of creativity.
Rococo was a reaction against the excessive severity and asceticism of other cultural movements of the Enlightenment. Representatives of Rococo in Europe were the playwright from France P. Beaumarchais (1732-1799), his compatriots D. Diderot and F. Voltaire, the early I.V. Goethe and our famous compatriot M. Lomonosov (1711-1765).
It is not for nothing that we paid so much attention to the influence of the Enlightenment on artistic culture, because this also perfectly demonstrates the strength of this philosophical movement, its influence on the minds and tastes of contemporaries. On the other hand, here one can notice a very important tendency to glorify the harmony of man and nature, which is extremely important for our time, when environmental and bioethical problems have become more acute.
It is safe to say that the Age of Enlightenment contributed no less to the world cultural fund than the Renaissance. In addition, many outstanding thinkers and ideologists of the Enlightenment were, as we see, talented writers and artists. Therefore, below we will take a closer look at the views of individual representatives of the Enlightenment.
For a hundred years - from 1689 to 1789 - the world changed beyond recognition.
Enlightenment, intellectual and spiritual movement of the late 17th - early 19th centuries. in Europe and North America. It was a natural continuation of the humanism of the Renaissance and the rationalism of the early modern era, which laid the foundations of the enlightenment worldview: the rejection of a religious worldview and an appeal to reason as the only criterion for knowledge of man and society. The name was fixed after the publication of I. Kant’s article. Answer to the question: what is Enlightenment? (1784). The root word is "light", from which the term "enlightenment" is derived.
The most important representatives of the culture of the Enlightenment are: Voltaire, J.-J. Rousseau, C. Montesquieu, K.A. Helvetius, D. Diderot in France, J. Locke in Great Britain, G.E. Lessing, I.G. Herder, I.V. Goethe, f. Schiller in Germany, T. Payne, B. Franklin, T. Jefferson in the USA, N.I. Novikov, A.N. Radishchev in Russia. The Age of Enlightenment is also called by the names of great philosophers: in France - the century of Voltaire, in Germany - the century of Kant, in Russia - the century of Lomonosov and Radishchev.
The Enlightenment originated in England at the end of the 17th century. in the writings of its founder D. Locke (1632–1704) and his followers G. Bolingbroke (1678–1751), D. Addison (1672–1719), A.E. Shaftesbury (1671–1713), F. Hutcheson (1694–1747) formulated the basic concepts of the Enlightenment doctrine: “common good”, “natural man”, “natural law”, “natural religion”, “social contract”.
In the 18th century, France became the center of the educational movement. At the first stage of the French Enlightenment, the main figures were S.L. Montesquieu (1689–1755) and Voltaire/
In the second stage of the French Enlightenment, the main role was played by Diderot (1713–1784) and the encyclopedists.
The third period brought forward the figure of J.-J. Rousseau (1712–1778).
The period of the late Enlightenment (late 18th – early 19th centuries) is associated with the countries of Eastern Europe, Russia and Germany. German literature and philosophical thought gave new impetus to the Enlightenment. German enlighteners were the spiritual successors of the ideas of English and French thinkers, but in their writings they were transformed and took on a deeply national character.
In the artistic culture of the Enlightenment there was no single style of the era, a single artistic language. Various stylistic forms simultaneously existed in it: late baroque, rococo, classicism, sentimentalism, pre-romanticism. The ratio of different types of art changed. Music and literature came to the fore, and the role of theater increased. There was a change in the hierarchy of genres.
During the Age of Enlightenment, there was an unprecedented rise in the art of music. The pinnacle of the musical culture of the Enlightenment is the work of I.S. Bach (1685–1750) and V.A. Mozart (1756–1791).
The educational movement, having common basic principles, developed differently in different countries. The formation of the Enlightenment in each state was associated with its political, social and economic conditions, as well as with national characteristics.
The new natural science entails a change in the picture of the world. Empirical research of the surrounding world becomes the center of interest. Only in the 18th century did the understanding of the solar system, proposed by Copernicus in the 16th century, become generally accepted. The earth is no longer the center of the universe; a person in a new worldview becomes just a grain of sand in the Universe, but at the same time, thanks to his mind, he subjugates this Universe to himself. The Aristotelian concept of form is replaced by a mechanical-atomistic worldview: the world consists of unchanging space, things consist of particles that mechanically interact with each other. Man no longer perceives substantial forms, but only material units, which are the basic elements of the universe. The consequence of this mechanistic explanation of nature is the fundamental opposition between the finite and the infinite, between matter and spirit, the sensory and the supersensible. Thus, it departs far not only from the previous scholastic metaphysics, but also from the picture of the world in original Lutheranism (with its “ftnitum capax infmiti”). Behind this new picture of the world is the conviction in the ability of the human mind to embrace the world and master it, to establish the laws of the world order, as well as the rules of human coexistence. A rationalistic explanation of nature and a rationalistic moral teaching arise as consequences of a new attitude. The Age of Enlightenment is characterized by a naive faith in man and his capabilities.
The Age of Enlightenment took place in Europe under the sign of scientific discoveries and philosophical understanding of changes in society, which were supposed to bring freedom and equality to peoples and destroy the privileges of the Church and the aristocracy. 17th-century discoveries in the natural sciences supported the idea that reason and scientific methods could create a true picture of the world. The world and nature seemed to be organized according to strict and absolute laws. Faith in authorities has given way to consistent skepticism. The traditional class structure of society was to be replaced by a new form of state based on the power of reason and law.
The Enlightenmentists believed that every person is born free, that primitive society was the most correct. Their ideal was the kingdom of Reason. Rousseau's Social Contract is characteristic, in which he says that, having gotten rid of class, people will create a society in which everyone will limit their freedom for the sake of social harmony. The state will become the bearer of the general will.
The culture of the Enlightenment was characterized by a tendency toward rapid secularization. Natural science in a new guise contributes to an immanent explanation of the world. Secular culture grows independently of churches and denominations. The state is also freed from religious purposes and connections with Christian denominations.
The Enlightenment represents not only a historical era in the development of European culture, but also a powerful ideological movement based on the belief in the decisive role of reason and science in the knowledge of the “natural order”, corresponding to the true nature of man and society.
Enlightenment advocates advocated the equality of all before the law, the right of everyone to appeal to higher authorities, the deprivation of the Church of secular power, the inviolability of property, the humanization of criminal law, support for science and technology, freedom of the press, agrarian reform and fair taxation. The cornerstone of all Enlightenment theories was the belief in the omnipotence of reason.
The successes of the Enlightenment became possible only because another powerful social force entered the historical stage - the bourgeois class
The Age of Enlightenment was a major turning point in the spiritual development of Europe, influencing almost all areas of life. The Enlightenment expressed itself in a special state of mind, intellectual inclinations and preferences. These are, first of all, the goals and ideals of the Enlightenment - freedom, welfare and happiness of people, peace, non-violence, religious tolerance, etc., as well as the famous freethinking, a critical attitude towards authorities of all kinds, rejection of dogmas - both political and religious.
The Age of Enlightenment is characterized by the confrontation between two antagonistic styles - classicism, based on rationalism and a return to the ideals of antiquity, and romanticism, which arose as a reaction to it, professing sensuality, sentimentalism, and irrationality. Here we can add a third style - Rococo, which arose as a negation of academic classicism and Baroque. Classicism and romanticism manifested themselves in everything - from literature to painting, sculpture and architecture, and Rococo - mainly only in painting and sculpture.
Attempts to explain the behavior of the human masses by the natural and logical course of history, striving for new progressive forms of life, independent of the power of rulers, aroused the ire of reactionary circles. Many Enlightenment thinkers were harshly persecuted. Their writings were burned. But the idea of the progressive historical development of a people and its culture as factors determining the consciousness of individual individuals was strengthened and enriched in the next era, having a profound influence on research in the field of psychology.
The Age of Enlightenment is one of the most important eras in the history of European culture, characterized by the development of social, philosophical and scientific thought. This powerful ideological movement was based on freethinking and rationalism, and educators saw knowledge as a powerful engine for the progress of all mankind.
Years of the Age of Enlightenment
The Enlightenment is a significant period in the history of the development of European society, which became a continuation of the humanistic ideas of the Renaissance. Enlighteners are outstanding scientists, thinkers and writers of their time who in every possible way contributed to the dissemination of educational ideas among the people.
The ideas of enlightenment arose at the end of the 17th century in England, under the influence of the scientific revolution. The founder of this movement was the English thinker John Locke, who in his works highlighted human rights to life, freedom, and private property. As a teacher, he attached great importance to the education and upbringing of every person.
Rice. 1. John Locke.
The Age of Enlightenment reached its greatest flowering in France in the 18th century, and its ideas very quickly spread throughout Europe and Russia. This movement was a response to the deepening crisis of absolute monarchy and feudalism, which could no longer satisfy the needs of society.
In each country, the enlightenment movement had its own characteristics, but its tasks were common to all:
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- The fight against feudalism and its basic concept.
- The fight against the church - the most important support of the feudal system.
- Creation of an ideal model of society, which would be based on the principles of the bourgeoisie.
Tsarist Russia's response to educational ideas was the creation in 1802 of the Ministry of Public Education. His main task was to carry out reforms in the educational system, updating all stages of the educational process.
Rice. 2. Ministry of Public Education.
Features of the culture of the Enlightenment
The main difference between the culture of the Age of Enlightenment is the availability of knowledge for all segments of society. Leading thinkers believed that only through the spread of education could many social problems be overcome. This is what rationalism is - the dominance of reason in people's behavior.
Enlightenment ideas were reflected in culture and science. Biology, chemistry, and mathematics received special development. A distinctive feature of scientific knowledge of the Enlightenment was the emphasis on its practical use in industrial and social development.
In the 18th century, music, literature and theater reached their peak. The best thinkers of the Enlightenment - Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, Alembert, Montesquieu - left behind literary works devoted to the ideas of humanism, freedom and equality.
Theater has become an incredibly popular art form. The theatrical stage became the arena in which the struggle of modern progressive thought with the callous old foundations took place.
Rice. 3. Theater of the Enlightenment.
The most popular comedy of the 18th century was Beaumarchais's The Marriage of Figaro. This play reflected all the moods of society, which had an extremely negative attitude towards an absolute monarchy.
The Age of Enlightenment had a huge impact on the development of society, creating all the prerequisites for scientific and technological progress. This period went down in history as the Silver Age.
The impetus for the transition to the Age of Enlightenment in all countries is the rejection of the feudal way of life and the transition to a more democratic system. How does its democracy manifest itself? Firstly, the culture of the Enlightenment is not intended for some selected layer of society, not for its rich elite, but for the entire people.
The goal of the Enlightenment was to make the entire people more educated. This is why the significance of the Age of Enlightenment as a whole for the entire cultural process in the world is very great. Thanks to him, the cultural framework, which previously covered only a small layer of society, significantly expanded. It was thanks to such a concept as the Enlightenment that the definitions “cultured” and “educated” could apply to any person seeking to enrich his inner world, even if this person had little means.
Equality is what the Enlightenment brought to life. It was precisely the concept of equality that became key to further cultural development. The fact that all people are initially equal and have the same rights to their further development as individuals served as the basis for the creation of the ideals of the Enlightenment. Who was the ideal of this era, which is often called "age of Reason"? Of course, a person, who is distinguished from an animal by the ability to think rationally. It is he who possesses not only physical, but also spiritual power.
According to many thinkers, the Enlightenment is the main engine of social progress.
For example, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant(1724–1804) wrote that “Enlightenment is a person’s emergence from the state of his minority...”. And “minority” “is the inability to use one’s reason without guidance from someone else.” According to I. Kant, a person “is in this minority through his own fault,” solely due to the “lack of determination and courage to use” his own reason.
This desire for independence, the participation of each person in the reconstruction of the world around him through the capabilities of his mind, has led to the fact that the religious ideas and thinking of the people have radically changed. One of the extremes of these changes is the emergence of atheist enlighteners who rejected religious ideas and cults and, contrary to these ideas, put man above all else. As a consequence, during the Enlightenment, a new form of faith emerged - deism. Enlightenment deists did not deny the existence of God as the world's mind, nor did they deny the fact that it is he who is the first cause of the world. That is, according to deists, God is the creator of the world as a kind of “machine”, to which he determined the laws of its movement. Any further intervention of God in the structure of this “machine” is rejected by deists; here man comes to the fore and makes his own adjustments.
It is worth noting that the Enlightenment era was characterized by optimistic sentiments associated with the belief that a person can be changed for the better. It is not for nothing that there was another definition of the Enlightenment as the “golden age of utopia.” This utopia referred primarily to changes in political and social foundations. A harmonious society, living according to reason, with a sense of responsibility for each individual person, is the ideal social structure of the utopian enlighteners. But despite the great desire to achieve such a society, many utopians, for example Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), little believed in its possibility.
The feudal system gave way to a new bourgeois type of economic relations. But this transition was not very smooth. It was preceded not just by gradual progressive transformations, but by real revolutions that affected various aspects of human life.
The Age of Enlightenment, which began with the last revolution in England (1689), subsequently included three revolutions at once:
1) industrial in England;
2) political in France;
3) philosophical and aesthetic in Germany.
But the Enlightenment affected not only the social structure of society, but also cultural development.
Leadership has emerged in philosophy rationalism, which replaced metaphysics. That is, it was the mind that began to be revered as the basis of human knowledge and behavior. Only reason was recognized as having the final say, both in life and in science, and even in religion.
Although the Age of Enlightenment spanned many countries, each of them had its own characteristics, primarily related to national identity.
England is considered the birthplace of the Enlightenment. Even the church here did not go against the Enlightenment, but accepted its values and ideals. The reconstruction of society after the revolution and civil wars, the strengthening of the rule of law with its desire for equality made England a kind of standard to which other states aspired.
The first to formulate the program of the English Enlightenment, which was also followed in France, was the philosopher John Locke(1632–1704). In his work "An Essay on Human Understanding", written in 1689, he identified three fundamental human rights, which are referred to as "inalienable rights":
1) the human right to life;
2) the human right to freedom;
3) right to property.
D. Locke saw the result of the adoption of these three rights in the “legal equality of individuals.”
D. Locke attributed great importance to human labor. In his opinion, it is labor that determines what kind of property a person will have.
Another English educator, philosopher, also adhered to the idea of equality Thomas Hobbes(1588–1679). He believed that all people are equal by nature, and inequality is the cause of many troubles, such as conflicts, wars, etc. And in order to avoid these troubles, T. Hobbes believed, every person needs to get rid of his selfish passions.
But there were thinkers who held a completely opposite opinion. Thus was born a new direction in philosophy, called ethics of self-love or reasonable egoism. His followers were the English thinker and writer Bernard Mandeville(1670–1733), as well as an English philosopher and sociologist Jeremiah Ventham(1748–1832). According to supporters of the ethics of self-love, selfishness is the driving force in the cultural and moral life of people.
Among the Scottish educators, it is worth highlighting the economist and philosopher Adam Smith(1723–1790). He put forward his innovative idea of civic behavior and social relations, in which he assigned a large role to the market. It was thanks to the market, according to A. Smith, that man was able to throw off the shackles of feudalism. Human freedom is determined primarily by his role in economic relations.
The Age of Enlightenment in France became famous with the names of great thinkers. First of all - Voltaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Tseni Diderot And Charles Louis Montesquieu.
One of the supporters of deism in France was a writer and educator Voltaire(1694–1778), whose real name Marie Francois Arouet. Already in his early works his indignation towards absolutism was evident; he ridiculed feudal society with its principles and moral values in every possible way. Such works as “Philosophical Letters,” written in 1733, and “Philosophical Dictionary,” written between 1764 and 1769, are devoted to criticism of the feudal-absolutist system. But Voltaire’s work covered not only philosophical and political themes. His prose was devoted to very diverse topics, written in various genres: from tragedy and comedy to poetry and novels. Voltaire's ideas played an important role in the development of world thought. In particular, in Russia it has become very widespread Voltairianism, which was associated with freethinking, religious skepticism, and the overthrow of authority.
Another critic of absolutism was Voltaire’s contemporary and compatriot, a lawyer and philosopher Charles Louis Montesquieu(1689–1755). His main works are “Persian Letters,” written in 1721, and the book “On the Spirit of Laws,” written in 1748. In them, S. L. Montesquieu discusses the causality of the emergence of one or another form of statehood, sees a solution to problems associated with legality, in the separation of powers.
The great French writer and philosopher remained irreconcilable with religious ideas, as well as absolutism in power throughout his life. Denis Diderot(1713–1784). He was a materialist, that is, a supporter of the idea that matter is primary, and all thinking and consciousness are only properties of this matter. One of the greatest achievements of D. Diderot is the idea of creating the “Encyclopedia” (1751–1780). He was not only its inspiration, but also its creator and editor. The Encyclopedia consisted of thirty-five volumes.
Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712–1778), French writer and philosopher, who, like other educators, treated the official church with distrust and even indignation. His works trace the main idea of the Enlightenment - the idea of universal equality. This theme is typical for such of his works as “Discourse on the Beginning and Foundations of Inequality” (1755), “On the Social Contract” (1762). In them he criticizes absolutism and extreme despotism of power.
According to J. J. Rousseau, many of a person’s problems are the result of his corrupt morals. This depravity came from poor upbringing and inequality. Therefore, Rousseau saw the solution in the eradication of all inequality, in the correct education of people who could serve for the good of society. That is why one of the most famous works of J. J. Rousseau is his novel “Emile, or on Education,” dedicated to pedagogical problems in the education system. The main goal of education, according to Rousseau, is the development in a person of an internal consciousness of goodness and the protection of his moral feelings from the corrupting influence of society.
The Enlightenment did not stand still either. The difficult situation in which Germany found itself, its fragmentation and economic instability left its characteristic national imprint on the German Enlightenment.
Among the German philosophers and educators it is worth highlighting Immanuel Kantam his contemporaries: Gotthold Ephraim Lessing And Johann Gottfried Herder.
The main idea of the German philosopher, art theorist and playwright Gotthold Ephraim Lessing(1729–1781) there was a political renewal that he saw in the unity of the human race. The goal of this renewal is the final stage in the development of human civilization, “the era of the new, eternal Gospel.”
Another German enlightenment philosopher, critic and esthetician was a supporter of humanistic ideas Johann Gottfried Herder(1744–1803). He stood for originality in art, for national differences and diversity. Some of his most significant works, imbued with the ideas of humanism, were the essay “Another Philosophy of History for the Education of Humanity”, as well as “Letters for the Encouragement of Humanity” (1793–1797).
I. Kant had his own concept of Enlightenment, according to which Enlightenment is the liberation of man from moral and intellectual dependence. In this regard, it is worth noting such a work by I. Kant as “Observation of the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime.” The beautiful and the sublime are the two main categories according to I. Kant. I. Kant observes all human feelings only through the prism of these categories.
And if the beautiful and sublime, rather, belongs to the world of art and creativity, then there were other topics that I. Kant touched on in his writings. He is concerned about many social issues. For example, such issues close to art as the development of culture created by man, the laws of this development. I. Kant sees the reason for any development as the natural competition of people in the pursuit of their personal freedom, self-realization, and the achievement of the significance of their personality.
An important concept in the philosophy of I. Kant is the concept of “thing in itself”. This concept means a thing considered from the side of its qualities that do not depend on a person in any way. It is interesting that in the first edition of his work “Critique of Pure Reason,” written in 1781, I. Kant denies any existence of “things in themselves.” And already in the second reissue it proves the opposite, that the “thing in itself” can be real.
The significance of I. Kant's philosophy for the subsequent development of philosophical thought is enormous. It was I. Kant who was the founder of German classical philosophy.
The art of the Enlightenment was characterized by its own stylistic and genre features. Three main trends characteristic of European art can be distinguished.
1. Classicism, from the Latin word classicus, What does "exemplary" mean?
2. Romanticism, from the French word romanticism.
It was the sentimentalists who created the cult of nature characteristic of the Enlightenment. In their opinion, natural areas such as gardens and parks are the most favorable places for a person who strives for his development and improvement.
Here parks are not just places with natural or planted vegetation. They include various cultural buildings such as museums, libraries, theaters, art galleries and temples, etc. From this we can conclude that the art of the Enlightenment era reached great heights.
Art in France is associated primarily with such a new concept as rococo. It is characterized by asymmetry, playfulness and pretentiousness, luxury and mannerism.
An example of Rococo is the work of the French painter Francois Boucher(1703–1770), such as “Venus Consoling Cupid” (1751), “Breakfast” (1750), “Diana’s Bath” (1742), “Morning” (1745), “The Resting Girl” (1752). ), “Toilet of Venus” (1751), etc.
The French draftsman and painter is rightfully considered the founder of the Rococo style. Antoine Watteau(1684–1721). His works, from everyday scenes to gallant celebrations, stand out for their brightness, sophistication, and colorfulness. His most famous paintings: “Society in the Park” (1716–1719), “Dance” (1710–1720), “Mezzeten” (1717–1719), “Lovers on Vacation”, “Pilgrimage to the Island” Kiefer" (1717–1718).
But the very first painter-educator was an Englishman William Hogarth(1697–1764). It was he who was the first to introduce secular themes into painting, whereas previously works of art with religious themes had predominated. W. Hogarth's paintings were characterized by satire; he used painting to ridicule the vices of the aristocracy. An example of this is his paintings “The Career of a Prostitute” (1730–1731), “The Career of a Spendthrift” (1732–1735), “The Marriage Contract,” “Elections” (c. 1754), etc.
His compatriot, painter of the Enlightenment Thomas Gainsborough(1727–1888) was one of the most outstanding portrait painters. His portraits (“Self-Portrait” (1754 and 1758), “Portrait of a Lady in Blue” (1770), “Girl with Pigs” (1782), “Morning Walk” (1785), etc.) spiritual, poetic, full of lyricism and spiritual sophistication.
In Italy, namely in Venice, in the 18th century. a new direction of painting was born - veduta.
Veduta (from the Italian word veduta) – this is an urban architectural landscape. Representatives of this trend were the Venetian painters-enlightenment Giovanni Canaletto (1697–1768) (“Portello and the Brenta Canal in Padua”, “Mason’s Court”, “Piazza of Saints John and Paul in Venice”, “Church of Santa Maria della Salute in Venice” , “Piazza San Marco in Venice”), Francesco Guardi (1712–1793) (“View of the square with the palace”, “Capriccio on the promenade of the Venetian Lagoon”, “Departure of the Doge on the Bucentoro to the Church of San Nicolo on the Lido”, "View of the Venetian Lagoon with the Malghera Tower").
The literary art of the Enlightenment did not stand still either. This is largely due to the flourishing of theatrical art. It is not without reason that the Age of Enlightenment is called the “golden age of theatre.”
In England this is associated with the name of the playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751–1816). He became famous for his satirical comedies: The Rivals (1775), Trips to Scarborough (1777), The School for Scandal.
Theatrical art was highly developed in Venice. Here, in a small city, there were seven theaters. Venetian theaters existed largely thanks to the merits of outstanding playwrights: Carlo Goldoni and Carlo Gozzi.
Most famous works Carlo Goldoni(1707–1793) – “The Cunning Widow” (1748), “The Innkeeper” (1753), “The Servant of Two Masters” (1745–1753). Thanks to his wit and sparkling humor, C. Goldoni became widely known throughout the world.
His contemporary Carlo Gozzi(1720–1806) wrote fairy tales (fiabs) for the theater, which were based on folklore: “The Love for Three Oranges” (1761), “The Deer King” (1762), “Turandot” (1762), etc. And if C. Goldoni refused method of commedia dell'arte (improvisation based on a script), then C. Gozzi, on the contrary, continued to widely use this method.
Comedy of manners reached great heights in the work of the French playwright of the Enlightenment. Pierre Augustin Beaumarchais (1732–1799). The heroes of his works tried in every possible way to protest and ridicule the existing regime. (The Barber of Seville (1775) and The Marriage of Figaro (1784)).
During the Enlightenment, a “universal genius” appeared in Germany, the founder of German literature, writer Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749–1832). His works are imbued with anti-feudal sentiments, they describe the problems of human relationships, the search for the meaning of life (the play “Egmont” (1788), the tragedy “Faust” (1803–1832), the autobiographical book “Poetry and Truth”, etc.) . I. Goethe was not only a talented writer, but also a brilliant natural scientist (“Essay on the Metamorphosis of Plants” (1790), “The Doctrine of Color” (1810)).
Musical art can be placed on a par with theater and literary art. Operas and other musical works were written on the themes of the works of great writers and playwrights.
The development of musical art is primarily associated with the names of such great composers as I.-S. Bach, G. F. Handel, I Haydn, W. A. Mozart, L. V. Beethoven and etc.
The German composer, organist and harpsichordist was an unsurpassed master of polyphony. Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750). His works were imbued with deep philosophical meaning and high ethics. He was able to summarize the achievements in musical art that his predecessors had achieved. His most famous works are “The Well-Tempered Clavier” (1722–1744), “The St. John Passion” (1724), “The St. Matthew Passion” (1727 and 1729), many concerts and cantatas, the Mass of the minor (1747–1749), etc.
Unlike I.-S. Bach, who did not write a single opera, a German composer and organist George Frideric Handel (1685–1759) belong to more than forty operas. As well as works on biblical themes (oratorios “Israel in Egypt” (1739), “Saul” (1739), “Messiah” (1742), “Samson” (1743), “Judas Maccabee” (1747), etc.), organ concerts, sonatas, suites, etc.
The great Austrian composer was a master of classical instrumental genres such as symphonies, quartets, as well as sonata forms. Joseph Haydn(1732–1809). It was thanks to him that the classical composition of the orchestra was formed. He owns several oratorios (“The Seasons” (1801), “The Creation of the World” (1798)), 104 symphonies, 83 quartets, 52 piano sonatas, 14 masses, etc.
Another Austrian composer, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart(1756–1791), was a child prodigy, thanks to which he became famous in early childhood. He wrote over 20 operas, including the famous “The Marriage of Figaro” (1786), “Don Giovanni” (1787), “The Magic Flute” (1791), more than 50 symphonies, many concerts, piano works (sonatas) , fantasies, variations), unfinished “Requiem” (1791), songs, masses, etc.
The German composer had a difficult fate, which left its mark on all his work. Ludwig van Beethoven(1770–1827). His genius manifested itself already in childhood and did not leave him even in the terrible trouble for any composer and musician - hearing loss. His works have a philosophical character. Many works were influenced by his republican views as a composer. Beethoven owns nine symphonies, instrumental sonatas (Moonlight, Pathétique), sixteen string quartets, ensembles, the opera Fidelio, overtures (Egmont, Coriolanus), concertos for piano and orchestra and other works.
His famous expression: “Music should strike fire from people’s hearts.” He followed this idea for the rest of his life.
At the end of the 17th century, the Age of Enlightenment began, which covered the entire subsequent 18th century. The key features of this time were freethinking and rationalism. The culture of the Enlightenment took shape, which gave the world
Philosophy
The entire culture of the Enlightenment was based on new philosophical ideas formulated by thinkers of that time. The main rulers of thought were John Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Goethe, Kant and some others. It was they who determined the spiritual appearance of the 18th century (which is also called the Age of Reason).
The Enlightenment believed in several key ideas. One of them is that all people are equal by nature, each person has his own interests and needs. To satisfy them, it is necessary to create a hostel that is comfortable for everyone. Personality is not born on its own - it is formed over time due to the fact that people have physical and spiritual strength, as well as intelligence. Equality must first and foremost consist in the equality of all before the law.
The culture of the Enlightenment is a culture of knowledge accessible to all. Leading thinkers believed that only through the spread of education could social unrest be ended. This is rationalism - the recognition of reason as the basis of human behavior and cognition.
During the Enlightenment, debates about religion continued. The dissociation of society from the inert and conservative church (primarily the Catholic one) grew. Among educated believers, the idea of God as a kind of absolute mechanic who brought order to the originally existing world spread. Thanks to numerous scientific discoveries, the point of view has spread that humanity can reveal all the secrets of the universe, and mysteries and miracles are a thing of the past.
Art movements
In addition to philosophy, there was also the artistic culture of the Enlightenment. At this time, the art of the Old World included two main directions. The first was classicism. It is embodied in literature, music, and fine arts. This direction implied following ancient Roman and Greek principles. Such art was distinguished by symmetry, rationality, purposefulness and strict compliance with form.
Within the framework of romanticism, the artistic culture of the Enlightenment responded to other requests: emotionality, imagination, creative improvisation of the artist. It often happened that in one work these two opposing approaches were combined. For example, the form could correspond to classicism, and the content - to romanticism.
Experimental styles also appeared. Sentimentalism became an important phenomenon. It did not have its own stylistic form, but it was with its help that the then ideas about human kindness and purity, which is given to people by nature, were reflected. Russian artistic culture in the Age of Enlightenment, just like European culture, had its own vibrant works that belonged to the movement of sentimentalism. This was the story of Nikolai Karamzin “Poor Liza”.
Cult of nature
It was the sentimentalists who created the cult of nature characteristic of the Enlightenment. Thinkers of the 18th century looked for in it an example of the beautiful and good that humanity should strive for. The parks and gardens that were actively appearing in Europe at that time turned out to be the embodiment of a better world. They were created as a perfect environment for perfect people. Their composition included art galleries, libraries, museums, temples, and theaters.
The Enlightenmentists believed that the new "natural man" must return to his natural state - that is, nature. According to this idea, Russian artistic culture during the Enlightenment (or rather, architecture) gave Peterhof to its contemporaries. The famous architects Leblon, Zemtsov, Usov, Quarenghi worked on its construction. Thanks to their efforts, a unique ensemble appeared on the shores of the Gulf of Finland, which included a unique park, magnificent palaces and fountains.
Painting
In painting, the artistic culture of Enlightenment Europe developed in the direction of greater secularism. The religious principle was losing ground even in those countries where it had previously felt quite confident: Austria, Italy, Germany. Landscape painting replaced the mood landscape, and the intimate portrait replaced the formal portrait.
In the first half of the 18th century, French culture of the Enlightenment gave birth to the Rococo style. Such art was built on asymmetry, it was mocking, playful and pretentious. The favorite characters of the artists of this movement were bacchantes, nymphs, Venus, Diana and other figures of ancient mythology, and the main subjects were love ones.
A striking example of French Rococo is the work of Francois Boucher, who was also called “the first artist of the king.” He painted theatrical scenery, illustrations for books, paintings for rich houses and palaces. His most famous paintings: “Toilet of Venus”, “Triumph of Venus”, etc.
Antoine Watteau, on the contrary, turned more to modern life. Under his influence, the style of the greatest English portrait painter, Thomas Gainsborough, developed. His images were distinguished by their spirituality, spiritual sophistication and poetry.
The main Italian painter of the 18th century was Giovanni Tiepolo. This master of engravings and frescoes is considered by art historians to be the last great representative of the Venetian school. The capital of the famous trading republic also gave rise to the veduta - the everyday cityscape. The most famous creators in this genre were Francesco Guardi and Antonio Canaletto. These cultural figures of the Enlightenment left behind a huge number of impressive paintings.
Theater
The 18th century is the golden age of theatre. During the Age of Enlightenment, this art form reached the height of its popularity and prevalence. In England, the greatest playwright was Richard Sheridan. His most famous works, “The Trip to Scarborough,” “The School for Scandal,” and “The Rivals,” satirized the immorality of the bourgeoisie.
The theatrical culture of Europe during the Enlightenment developed most dynamically in Venice, where 7 theaters operated at once. The traditional annual city carnival attracted guests from all over the Old World. The author of the famous “Tavern”, Carlo Goldoni, worked in Venice. This playwright, who wrote a total of 267 works, was respected and appreciated by Voltaire.
The most famous comedy of the 18th century was The Marriage of Figaro, written by the great Frenchman Beaumarchais. This play embodied the mood of society, which had a negative attitude towards the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons. A few years after the publication and first performances of the comedy, a revolution occurred in France that overthrew the old regime.
European culture during the Enlightenment was not homogeneous. In some countries, their own national characteristics arose in art. For example, German playwrights (Schiller, Goethe, Lessing) wrote their most outstanding works in the genre of tragedy. Moreover, the theater of the Enlightenment in Germany appeared several decades later than in France or England.
Johann Goethe was not only a wonderful poet and playwright. It is not without reason that he is called a “universal genius” - an art connoisseur and theorist, scientist, novelist and specialist in many other fields. His key works are the tragedy "Faust" and the play "Egmont". Another outstanding figure of the German Enlightenment, not only wrote "Cunning and Love" and "Robbers", but also left behind scientific and historical works.
Fiction
The main literary genre of the 18th century was the novel. It was thanks to the new books that the triumph of bourgeois culture came, replacing the old feudal ideology. The works of not only artistic writers, but also sociologists, philosophers, and economists were actively published.
The novel, as a genre, grew out of educational journalism. With its help, thinkers of the 18th century found a new form for expressing their social and philosophical ideas. Jonathan Swift, who wrote Gulliver's Travels, put into his work many allusions to the vices of his contemporary society. He also wrote “The Tale of the Butterfly.” In this pamphlet, Swift ridiculed the then church order and strife.
The development of culture during the Enlightenment can be traced by the emergence of new literary genres. At this time, the epistolary novel (a novel in letters) arose. This was, for example, Johann Goethe’s sentimental work “The Sorrows of Young Werther,” in which the main character committed suicide, as well as Montesquieu’s “Persian Letters.” Documentary novels appeared in the genre of travelogues or travel descriptions (“Travels in France and Italy” by Tobias Smollett).
In literature, the culture of the Enlightenment in Russia followed the precepts of classicism. In the 18th century, the poets Alexander Sumarokov, Vasily Trediakovsky, and Antioch Cantemir worked. The first shoots of sentimentalism appeared (the already mentioned Karamzin with “Poor Liza” and “Natalia, the Boyar’s Daughter”). The culture of the Enlightenment in Russia created all the prerequisites for Russian literature, led by Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol, to experience its golden age already at the beginning of the new 19th century.
Music
It was during the Enlightenment that the modern musical language emerged. Johann Bach is considered its founder. This great composer wrote works in all genres (opera was the exception). Bach is still considered an unsurpassed master of polyphony today. Another German composer, George Handel, wrote more than 40 operas, as well as numerous sonatas and suites. He, like Bach, drew inspiration from biblical stories (characteristic titles of the works: “Israel in Egypt,” “Saul,” “Messiah”).
Another important musical phenomenon of that time was the Viennese school. The works of its representatives continue to be performed by academic orchestras today, thanks to which modern people can touch the heritage left by the culture of the Age of Enlightenment. The 18th century is associated with the names of such geniuses as Wolfgang Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Ludwig Van Beethoven. It was these Viennese composers who rethought previous musical forms and genres.
Haydn is considered the father of the classical symphony (he wrote more than a hundred of them). Many of these works were based on folk dances and songs. The pinnacle of Haydn's work is the cycle of London symphonies, written by him during his trips to England. The culture of the Enlightenment, or any other period of human history, has rarely produced such prolific artists. In addition to symphonies, Haydn wrote 83 quartets, 13 masses, 20 operas and 52 keyboard sonatas.
Mozart not only wrote music. He played the harpsichord and violin unsurpassed, having mastered these instruments in his early childhood. His operas and concerts are distinguished by a wide variety of moods (from poetic lyrics to fun). Mozart's main works are considered to be his three symphonies, written in the same year, 1788 (number 39, 40, 41).
Another great classic, Beethoven, was fond of heroic subjects, which was reflected in the overtures “Egmont”, “Coriolanus” and the opera “Fidelio”. As a performer, he amazed his contemporaries by playing the piano. Beethoven wrote 32 sonatas for this instrument. The composer created most of his works in Vienna. He also owns 10 sonatas for violin and piano (the Kreutzer Sonata is the most famous).
Beethoven suffered from severe hearing loss. The composer was inclined towards suicide and in despair wrote his legendary “Moonlight” sonata. However, even a terrible illness did not break the artist’s will. Having overcome his own apathy, Beethoven wrote many more symphonic works.
English Enlightenment
England was the birthplace of the European Enlightenment. In this country, earlier than others, back in the 17th century, a bourgeois revolution took place, which gave impetus to cultural development. England has become a clear example of social progress. Philosopher John Locke was one of the first and main theorists of the liberal idea. Under the influence of his writings, the most important political document of the Enlightenment era was written - the American Declaration of Independence. Locke believed that human knowledge is determined by sensory perception and experience, which refuted the previously popular philosophy of Descartes.
Another important British thinker of the 18th century was David Hume. This philosopher, economist, historian, diplomat and publicist updated the science of morality. His contemporary Adam Smith became the founder of modern economic theory. The culture of the Age of Enlightenment, in short, preceded many modern concepts and ideas. Smith's work was exactly like that. He was the first to equate the importance of the market with the importance of the state.
Thinkers of France
French philosophers of the 18th century worked in opposition to the then existing social and political system. Rousseau, Diderot, Montesquieu - they all protested against the domestic order. Criticism could take a variety of forms: atheism, idealization of the past (the republican traditions of antiquity were praised), etc.
The 35-volume Encyclopedia became a unique phenomenon of the culture of the Enlightenment. It was composed of the main thinkers of the “Age of Reason”. The inspirer and editor-in-chief of this epoch-making publication was Julien La Mettrie, Claude Helvetius and other outstanding intellectuals of the 18th century who contributed to individual volumes.
Montesquieu sharply criticized the arbitrariness and despotism of the authorities. Today he is rightly considered the founder of bourgeois liberalism. Voltaire became an example of outstanding wit and talent. He was the author of satirical poems, philosophical novels, and political treatises. Twice the thinker went to prison, and even more times he had to go on the run. It was Voltaire who created the fashion for freethinking and skepticism.
German Enlightenment
German culture of the 18th century existed in conditions of political fragmentation of the country. Progressive minds advocated the rejection of feudal remnants and national unity. Unlike French philosophers, German thinkers were cautious about issues related to the church.
Like the Russian culture of the Enlightenment, Prussian culture was formed with the direct participation of an autocratic monarch (in Russia it was Catherine II, in Prussia it was Frederick the Great). The head of state strongly supported the progressive ideals of his time, although he did not renounce his unlimited power. This system was called “enlightened absolutism.”
The main Enlightenment figure in Germany in the 18th century was Immanuel Kant. In 1781 he published the fundamental work “Critique of Pure Reason”. The philosopher developed a new theory of knowledge and studied the capabilities of human intelligence. It was he who substantiated the methods of struggle and legal forms of changing the social and state system, excluding gross violence. Kant made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory of the rule of law.